rman, Belgian, or Spanish subjects. Comprehensive study around the biomarkers of FBs has been carried out based on their mode of action, specifically the inhibition on the biosynthesis of de novo sphingolipids. Ceramide synthase inhibition causes an elevation inside the Sa concentration and, subsequently, a rise within the Sa-to-So ratio in various animal species and in humans [72]. In Portugal, the analysis of 68 human urine samples obtained from participants living in the Central zone from the nation, namely, a rural and an urban area, showed that the Sa/So ratio was 0.43 0.22 and 0.42 0.17, respectively; no substantial differences have been identified between CXCR7 Activator supplier populations [82]. In addition, a prior study performed within this area revealed that these populations, even the rural one particular, have been definitely below low exposure levels [82]. Data retrievedMolecules 2022, 27,eight offrom Portuguese HBM research comply with data discovered inside the literature for French [83] and Italian [80,84] populations. Castegnaro et al. [83] investigated urine offered by 14 female and seven male healthful French participants, and verified standard values of the Sa/So ratio. Nonetheless, a study in China [85] advocated that human GlyT1 Inhibitor Molecular Weight sphingolipid metabolism may be influenced by the intake of FB1, and that the Sa/So ratio in urine may very well be beneficial for assessing higher FB1 exposure, claiming that males are additional susceptible to FB1 inhibition of sphingolipid metabolism than females. In 2001, the prospective part of FBs in endemic nephropathy, a chronic renal disease, was studied in Brodska Posavina, Croatia. The Sa/So ratio was evaluated in wholesome participants and in individuals from this endemic region. The results, both in urine and in serum, revealed sphingolipid metabolism harm, possibly triggered by FBs or fumonisin-like mycotoxins. Due to the fact statistically considerable differences had been verified when comparing them to the participants not impacted by endemic nephropathy, impairment in sphingolipid metabolism may possibly be regarded as an initial sign of this illness [86]. Concentrations of FBs have also been determined in other human biological samples such as in serum [83,86] and plasma [84]. The typical Sa/So ratio inside the serum of nine healthier female participants from France was 0.43 (0.18.78), whereas in nine male participants it was 0.31 (0.11.57). In South Africa, in 13 female participants the ratio was 0.22 (0.09.44), and in sufferers with esophageal cancer it was 0.23 (variety 0.16.36). Thus, despite the little variety of cancer patients (n = 4), no statistical distinction was observed in the Sa/So ratio compared together with the control group of esophageal cancer individuals [83]; these results are also in accordance with these obtained in various other research. Notwithstanding the analytical progress made inside the determination of Sa and So, some questions stay to be addressed. The ratio must be evaluated individually, along with FB exposure, and might only be beneficial in hugely exposed populations, with levels close to or above the established TDI. 3.4. Other people Deoxynivalenol (DON) is often a tricothecene made by F. graminearum and F. culmorum. Unmetabolized DON, along with its glucuronide conjugate, is among the important compounds located in human urine. Nonetheless, some reports have also shown the presence on the metabolite deepoxy-deoxynivalenol (DOM-1) in human urine [87,88]. In Portugal, the natural occurrence of DON and its metabolites in human urine samples in the north zone of Portugal was preliminary evaluated in 2012 in 13 volu